Virtual Machines: A Guide for Operating System Software in Computers

0

Virtual machines have become a crucial component in the realm of operating system software, revolutionizing the way computers function. By simulating the execution of multiple operating systems on a single physical machine, virtual machines enable greater flexibility and efficiency in software development, testing, and deployment. For instance, imagine a scenario where an organization needs to run different versions of an operating system simultaneously for compatibility purposes. Instead of procuring separate hardware for each version, virtual machines can be utilized to create isolated environments that mimic distinct operational configurations.

In this article, we will explore the concept of Virtual Machines in depth and provide a comprehensive guide to their functionality and benefits within computer systems. The primary focus will be on understanding how virtualization technologies work at both the hardware and software levels. Additionally, we will examine various use cases and industries where virtual machines are increasingly being employed to optimize resource allocation and streamline operations. Moreover, considerations such as performance overheads, security implications, and management strategies associated with virtual machines will also be addressed to equip readers with practical knowledge essential for effective utilization in real-world scenarios.

Hypervisor Types and Their Functions

Virtual machines (VMs) have become an essential component in modern computing systems, enabling the execution of multiple operating systems simultaneously on a single physical machine. This section provides an overview of hypervisor types and their functions, which are crucial for understanding the underlying technology behind virtualization.

To illustrate the significance of hypervisors, let’s consider a hypothetical scenario where a company wants to run different applications that require distinct operating systems. Instead of purchasing separate hardware for each application, they can utilize virtualization technology through hypervisors. By employing a Type 1 hypervisor such as VMware ESXi or Microsoft Hyper-V directly on the bare metal server, the company can create VMs with different operating systems running concurrently on the same hardware infrastructure.

Understanding the various Types of hypervisors is essential when deciding which approach best suits specific requirements. There are two main categories: Type 1 (bare-metal) and Type 2 (hosted). In both cases, these hypervisors act as intermediaries between the physical hardware and guest OSes. The following bullet points highlight key characteristics:

  • Type 1 Hypervisor

    • Installed directly on the host computer.
    • Provides direct access to hardware resources.
    • Offers better performance due to its proximity to system resources.
    • Examples include XenServer and KVM.
  • Type 2 Hypervisor

    • Runs within an existing operating system environment.
    • Shares host OS resources with guest OSes.
    • Easier installation and configuration compared to Type 1.
    • Examples include VMware Workstation and Oracle VirtualBox.

A comparison table further illustrates some differences between Type 1 and Type 2 hypervisors:

Type 1 Hypervisor Type 2 Hypervisor
Installation Directly on bare metal Within existing OS environment
Resource Access Direct access to hardware Shares host OS resources
Performance Better performance Lower performance
Examples XenServer, KVM VMware Workstation, VirtualBox

Understanding the distinctions between these hypervisor types is crucial for selecting an appropriate virtualization solution. In the subsequent section, we will explore the advantages of virtualization software in more detail and how it can enhance computing environments.

Advantages of Virtualization Software

Transitioning from the previous section discussing different types of hypervisors and their functions, we now delve into exploring the advantages of virtualization software. To illustrate these benefits, let us consider a hypothetical case study involving a medium-sized company called TechSolutions.

TechSolutions was facing challenges in managing its IT infrastructure efficiently due to limited physical resources. By implementing virtualization software on their servers, they were able to create multiple virtual machines (VMs) on a single physical server. This allowed them to consolidate their hardware and optimize resource utilization. As a result, TechSolutions experienced cost savings through reduced power consumption, lower cooling requirements, and decreased maintenance expenses associated with maintaining numerous physical servers.

The advantages offered by virtualization software extend beyond cost savings. Here are some key benefits that organizations can derive from adopting this technology:

  • Enhanced scalability: Virtualization enables easy scalability as new VMs can be provisioned quickly without the need for additional physical hardware. This flexibility allows businesses to respond swiftly to changing demands or sudden surges in workload.
  • Improved disaster recovery: With virtual machine snapshots and backups, companies like TechSolutions can achieve faster data recovery in case of system failures or disasters. These snapshots capture the state of the entire VM at a specific point in time, allowing for efficient restoration when needed.
  • Increased security: Virtualization provides isolation between VMs, which helps prevent malicious attacks from spreading across systems. Additionally, features such as secure containers within VMs add an extra layer of protection against unauthorized access and data breaches.
  • Simplified testing and development: The ability to clone existing VMs enables developers to work on isolated environments without affecting production systems directly. This facilitates more streamlined testing processes while minimizing risks associated with making changes to live environments.

To further highlight the advantages mentioned above, take a look at the table below comparing traditional infrastructure setup versus virtualized infrastructure:

Traditional Infrastructure Virtualized Infrastructure
Multiple physical servers required Consolidation of hardware resources on a single server
Limited scalability, requiring additional hardware purchases Easily scalable by provisioning new VMs
Lengthy recovery times in case of system failures Faster data recovery through snapshots and backups
Vulnerable to security breaches across systems Enhanced security with isolated VM environments

Understanding the benefits offered by virtualization software lays the foundation for exploring containerization technology. By harnessing these advantages, organizations can optimize their IT infrastructure while achieving greater flexibility and efficiency.

Moving forward, let us now delve into the concept of containerization technology and its significance within modern computing environments.

Understanding Containerization Technology

Virtualization software offers numerous advantages in the realm of operating system software for computers. One real-world example that highlights these benefits is the case of a large multinational company with multiple departments spread across different geographical locations. By utilizing virtual machines, this organization was able to consolidate their server infrastructure and reduce hardware costs significantly.

One major advantage of virtualization software is its ability to maximize resource utilization. With traditional physical servers, each machine typically runs only one operating system, resulting in underutilized resources. In contrast, virtual machines allow multiple operating systems to run simultaneously on a single physical server, effectively maximizing resource usage and reducing idle time.

Furthermore, virtualization enables improved disaster recovery capabilities. By creating snapshots or replicas of virtual machines, organizations can easily restore critical systems in the event of hardware failure or other unforeseen circumstances. This ensures minimal downtime and facilitates faster recovery compared to traditional backup methods.

  • Enhanced scalability: Virtual machines offer flexibility by allowing easy expansion or contraction of computing resources based on demand.
  • Simplified maintenance: Virtual environments make it easier to manage updates and patches across multiple operating systems without disrupting overall operations.
  • Increased security: Isolation between virtual machines provides an additional layer of protection against malware or unauthorized access.
  • Green computing: Consolidating servers through virtualization reduces energy consumption and carbon footprint.

Additionally, let’s include a three-column table showcasing some key features offered by popular virtualization software solutions:

Feature VMware vSphere Microsoft Hyper-V Oracle VM
Live migration Yes Yes Yes
High availability Yes Yes No
Fault tolerance Yes No No
Resource management Advanced Basic Basic

The advantages of virtualization software are evident, making it a valuable tool for organizations seeking to optimize their computing resources and improve overall efficiency. As we delve into the next section on containerization technology, it is important to understand its distinctions from virtualization and how both can be utilized in different scenarios to enhance various aspects of computer systems.

Transitioning into the subsequent section about “The Concept of Emulation in Computing,” one must recognize that emulation plays a crucial role in expanding the capabilities of computers beyond their inherent limitations.

The Concept of Emulation in Computing

Imagine a scenario where an organization needs to run legacy software that is only compatible with outdated operating systems. In such cases, emulation technology can be a valuable solution. Emulation allows computers to mimic the behavior of different hardware or software environments, enabling them to run applications that would otherwise be incompatible. For instance, consider a company that relies on specialized software designed for Windows XP but wants to upgrade its infrastructure to use more modern operating systems like Windows 10. By employing emulation techniques, this company can continue using their legacy software without facing compatibility issues.

Emulation offers several advantages in computing:

  • Versatility: With emulation, organizations gain flexibility as they can run multiple operating systems and applications simultaneously on the same machine.
  • Cost-effectiveness: Emulating older hardware eliminates the need for physical devices, reducing costs associated with maintenance and procurement.
  • Risk mitigation: Emulation provides a safe environment to test new software or conduct experiments without affecting production systems.
  • Preservation of digital heritage: Through emulation, historic computer systems and software can be preserved and made accessible for educational purposes or research.
Advantages of Emulation Description
1. Versatility Allows simultaneous operation of multiple operating systems and applications.
2. Cost-effectiveness Eliminates the need for physical devices, reducing maintenance and procurement costs.
3. Risk mitigation Provides a secure testing environment without impacting production systems.
4. Preservation of digital heritage Makes historic computer systems and software available for education and research.

In conclusion, by utilizing emulation in computing, organizations can overcome compatibility challenges posed by legacy software or outdated hardware configurations. This technology enables versatility in running various operating systems and applications concurrently while offering cost-effective solutions through reduced reliance on physical devices. It also facilitates risk-free experimentation environments and ensures the preservation of valuable digital heritage.

The subsequent section will delve into the differences between Bare Metal Virtualization and traditional virtualization, highlighting their distinct characteristics and use cases.

Differences between Bare Metal Virtualization and Traditional Virtualization

To illustrate the practical application of virtual machines (VMs), let’s consider a hypothetical scenario. Imagine a software development company that needs to test its product across multiple operating systems. Instead of purchasing and maintaining separate physical computers for each OS, they decide to use VMs. By creating virtual instances of different operating systems within a single host computer, the company can efficiently carry out their testing procedures.

When it comes to emulating operating systems in virtual machines, there are several key considerations:

  1. Resource Allocation: A crucial aspect of running VMs is allocating resources such as CPU cores, memory, and storage. These resources need to be distributed effectively among the various virtual machines running on the host system.
  2. Isolation and Security: It is essential to ensure that each virtual machine operates independently from others and remains isolated from potential security threats or breaches. This isolation prevents any negative impact on other VMs or the host system itself.
  3. Performance Optimization: Optimizing performance is important to ensure smooth operation of each guest operating system within its respective virtual machine. Techniques like resource scheduling and load balancing play a significant role in achieving this objective.
  4. Snapshots and Backups: The ability to take snapshots and create backups of individual VMs provides an added layer of flexibility and reliability during software testing or deployment processes.

These aspects highlight some fundamental considerations when using virtual machines for emulating different operating systems within a single computer environment.

Resource Allocation Isolation & Security Performance Optimization Snapshots & Backups
Efficiently allocate resources among VMs Ensure independent operation and isolation Optimize performance through techniques like resource scheduling Take snapshots and create backups for increased reliability

In summary, employing virtual machines enables organizations to emulate multiple operating systems on a single host computer, leading to cost and resource savings. By appropriately allocating resources, ensuring isolation and security, optimizing performance, and taking advantage of snapshot features, companies can achieve efficient software testing and development processes.

The subsequent section will delve into the role played by hardware-assisted virtualization in enhancing the capabilities of virtual machines.

The Role of Hardware-Assisted Virtualization in VMs

Case Study:
To understand the significance of Hardware-Assisted Virtualization in virtual machines (VMs), let us consider a hypothetical scenario. Imagine an organization that relies heavily on multiple operating systems for their business operations. Without hardware-assisted virtualization, each operating system would require its own physical server, resulting in high costs and inefficient resource utilization. However, by leveraging hardware-assisted virtualization technologies, this organization can consolidate multiple operating systems onto a single physical server, reducing costs and improving efficiency.

Hardware-Assisted Virtualization Benefits:

  • Enhanced Performance: Hardware-assisted virtualization enables VMs to directly access underlying hardware resources such as CPUs and memory, leading to improved performance and reduced overhead.
  • Improved Security: By leveraging hardware features like Intel VT-x or AMD-V, VMs benefit from enhanced security capabilities such as isolation between different VMs and protection against unauthorized access.
  • Efficient Resource Management: With hardware-assisted virtualization, organizations can dynamically allocate resources to VMs based on demand, optimizing resource usage and minimizing wastage.
  • Seamless Migration: Hardware-assisted virtualization facilitates seamless migration of VMs between physical hosts without disrupting ongoing processes or causing downtime.

Table: Comparison of Traditional Virtualization vs. Hardware-Assisted Virtualization

Aspect Traditional Virtualization Hardware-Assisted Virtualization
Performance Higher overhead due to software layer Lower overhead and direct access
Security Limited isolation between VMs Enhanced security features
Resource Allocation Static allocation based on configuration Dynamic allocation based on demand
Migration Capability Time-consuming process Seamless migration with minimal impact

By harnessing the power of hardware-assisted virtualization, organizations can unlock numerous benefits while efficiently managing their computing environments. In the subsequent section about “Benefits of Hypervisors in Computing Environments,” we will explore the advantages that hypervisors bring to this virtualization landscape. The integration of hardware-assisted virtualization and hypervisor technology has revolutionized the way operating systems are utilized, offering unprecedented flexibility and scalability for businesses across various industries.

Benefits of Hypervisors in Computing Environments

Imagine a scenario where a large organization needs to run multiple operating systems simultaneously on their servers, each with different software requirements. By utilizing hardware-assisted virtualization technology, they can achieve efficient and secure virtual machine (VM) environments. This section will explore the advantages that hardware-assisted virtualization offers in terms of performance, security, and resource management.

Firstly, hardware-assisted virtualization significantly enhances performance by allowing direct access to the underlying physical resources. With this technology, each VM can have its own dedicated CPU cores, memory allocation, and I/O devices. For instance, an e-commerce website experiencing high traffic could allocate separate VMs for web server functions and database operations. This isolation prevents resource contention between applications running on different VMs and improves overall system performance.

Secondly, hardware-assisted virtualization plays a crucial role in ensuring the security of VMs. It provides robust isolation between guest OSes and the hypervisor layer, making it harder for malicious code or malware within one VM to affect others. Additionally, features like Intel VT-x or AMD-V enable the use of nested paging techniques which enhance memory protection mechanisms against attacks such as buffer overflows or privilege escalation exploits.

Finally, hardware-assisted virtualization enables efficient resource management through dynamic workload balancing across multiple VMs. Hypervisors equipped with load balancers can distribute computing workloads based on real-time demands across available CPUs and memory modules. Moreover, live migration capabilities allow moving running VM instances from one physical host to another without interrupting services—an essential feature when performing maintenance tasks or scaling up resources during peak usage periods.

In summary:

  • Performance benefits: Direct access to physical resources ensures optimal utilization without interference.
  • Enhanced security: Isolation measures protect against cross-VM contamination and exploit attempts.
  • Efficient resource management: Load balancing and live migration optimize resource allocation dynamically.

By harnessing the advantages of hardware-assisted virtualization, organizations can improve system performance, enhance security measures, and achieve effective resource management within their VM environments. The next section will delve into the considerations involved in choosing the right virtualization solution for specific needs—focusing on hypervisors and container-based solutions.

Choosing the Right Virtualization Solution for Your Needs

Imagine a scenario where a company needs to run multiple operating systems on their servers, each with different software requirements. By using virtual machines (VMs), this can be achieved efficiently and cost-effectively. One such example is a large e-commerce platform that utilizes VMs to host its website, customer database, and inventory management system separately on individual virtual instances. This allows for better resource allocation, isolation, and flexibility while ensuring smooth operations.

The benefits of utilizing virtual machines in computing environments are numerous. Firstly, VMs provide enhanced security through isolation. Each virtual instance runs independently from others, reducing the risk of malware or unauthorized access spreading across the entire system. Moreover, patching or updating specific VMs becomes more manageable without affecting other running instances.

Secondly, VMs offer improved efficiency by maximizing hardware utilization. With physical servers often underutilized due to varying workload demands at different times, VMs allow for dynamic allocation of resources based on current needs. This ensures optimal utilization and prevents wasting valuable computing power.

Thirdly, the scalability provided by VMs is invaluable for organizations experiencing fluctuating workloads. As demand increases during peak periods – like holiday seasons for retail companies – additional virtual instances can be easily provisioned to handle the increased traffic load. Conversely, when demand decreases during off-peak periods, unnecessary instances can be removed to save costs.

Lastly, one cannot overlook the cost savings associated with employing virtual machines. By consolidating multiple operating systems onto fewer physical servers via VM technology, organizations reduce hardware expenses significantly – from purchasing server units to occupying data center space and consuming energy.

These advantages make it clear why businesses should consider incorporating virtual machines into their computing environments. In the subsequent section about “Exploring the Various Virtualization Software Options,” we will delve further into the available solutions and how to choose one that aligns best with your specific needs and requirements.

Exploring the Various Virtualization Software Options

In this section, we will delve into the different virtualization software options available to meet your specific needs. To illustrate this, let’s consider a hypothetical case study of a company looking for a virtualization solution to optimize their server infrastructure.

One popular option is VMware vSphere, which offers advanced features and robust management tools. With its powerful hypervisor technology, vSphere allows multiple operating systems to run simultaneously on a single physical server. This enables our imaginary company to consolidate their servers, reducing hardware costs and improving overall efficiency.

When evaluating virtualization software options, it is essential to consider factors such as cost, ease of use, scalability, and support. Here are some key considerations:

  • Cost-effectiveness: Compare licensing fees and ongoing maintenance costs.
  • User-friendly interface: Look for intuitive interfaces with comprehensive documentation.
  • Scalability: Consider whether the software can accommodate future growth without significant disruptions.
  • Technical support: Assess the level of assistance provided by the vendor in case of issues or emergencies.

To further assist you in making an informed decision about choosing the right virtualization software, here is a comparison table highlighting some key features of three popular solutions:

VMware vSphere Microsoft Hyper-V Oracle VM VirtualBox
Hypervisor Type 1 (Bare Metal) Type 1 (Bare Metal) Type 2 (Hosted)
Operating Systems Support Wide range Windows-centric Wide range
Management Tools Extensive Integrated Basic
Performance High Moderate Moderate

By carefully considering these aspects and exploring various software options like VMware vSphere, Microsoft Hyper-V, and Oracle VM VirtualBox among others, organizations can find a suitable fit for optimizing their computing resources.

Transitioning into the subsequent section about “Containerization vs. Traditional Virtualization: Pros and Cons,” it is crucial to understand the differences between these two virtualization technologies.

Containerization vs. Traditional Virtualization: Pros and Cons

In the previous section, we delved into the concept of virtual machines and their significance in operating system software. Now, let us explore some of the popular virtualization software options available today. To better understand these technologies, consider a hypothetical scenario where a company wants to run multiple operating systems on a single physical server for cost efficiency.

One widely used virtualization software is VMware vSphere, which allows organizations to create and manage Virtual machines efficiently. With features like high availability and resource pooling, vSphere enables businesses to optimize hardware utilization while ensuring reliable performance across multiple VMs. Additionally, it provides advanced functionalities such as live migration and distributed resource scheduling, allowing seamless workload balancing and uninterrupted services.

Another notable option is Microsoft Hyper-V, an integral part of Windows Server OS. It offers robust virtual machine management capabilities along with support for various guest operating systems. With its user-friendly interface and comprehensive integration with other Microsoft products, Hyper-V simplifies the process of creating and managing virtual environments effectively.

When evaluating different virtualization software options, several factors come into play:

  • Compatibility: Consider whether your desired guest operating systems are supported by the chosen software.
  • Performance: Evaluate how well each software performs under heavy workloads or resource-intensive applications.
  • Scalability: Determine if the solution can accommodate future growth by easily adding new virtual machines or expanding existing ones.
  • Cost-effectiveness: Assess both initial investments and long-term maintenance costs associated with each option.
Factors VMware vSphere Microsoft Hyper-V
Compatibility Excellent Very Good
Performance Exceptional Good
Scalability Highly scalable Moderately scalable
Cost-effectiveness Higher upfront cost but potential savings in operational expenses Lower upfront cost but may have additional licensing fees

By carefully considering these factors and comparing the available options, organizations can make informed decisions about which virtualization software best suits their requirements. In the subsequent section, we will explore another aspect of virtual machines: Emulation vs. Virtualization and how they differ in terms of functionality and implementation.

Emulation vs. Virtualization: A Comparison

Having discussed the pros and cons of containerization versus traditional virtualization in the previous section, it is now important to explore another aspect of virtual machines – the comparison between emulation and virtualization. This will provide a deeper understanding of how these two techniques differ and their respective implications for operating system software.

Emulation involves creating a virtual machine that imitates an entire computer hardware platform, enabling it to run a different operating system than what is native to the host machine. For instance, consider a scenario where an organization wants to run legacy software designed for Windows XP on modern hardware running Windows 10. By using emulation, the organization can create a virtual environment that mimics the old hardware architecture necessary for the legacy software’s execution. Emulation allows compatibility with older systems but may incur performance penalties due to additional layers of abstraction.

On the other hand, virtualization provides a more efficient approach by sharing underlying resources such as memory and processor cycles. Unlike emulation, which replicates the complete hardware stack, virtualization operates at a higher level of abstraction known as paravirtualization or full virtualization. In this context, paravirtualization refers to modifying guest operating systems so they are aware they are running in a virtualized environment. Full virtualization uses binary translation techniques to allow unmodified guest operating systems to operate within a controlled environment. Virtualization enables multiple instances of different operating systems to coexist on one physical server while maintaining isolation between them.

To highlight further distinctions between emulation and virtualization, let us examine some key factors:

  • Performance: While both techniques introduce overhead compared to running applications natively on bare metal hardware, emulation generally incurs higher performance costs due to its need to translate instructions from one architecture to another.
  • Compatibility: Emulation offers broader compatibility with legacy systems since it can replicate specific hardware configurations required by outdated software. Virtualization focuses more on providing isolated environments for multiple operating systems without requiring significant modifications.
  • Resource utilization: Virtualization, with its ability to share resources efficiently, allows for better resource utilization compared to emulation. Emulation often requires dedicated resources to replicate the original hardware environment accurately.
Factors Emulation Virtualization
Performance Higher overhead due to instruction translation Lower overhead as it operates at a higher level of abstraction
Compatibility Broad compatibility with legacy systems Focuses on providing isolated environments without extensive modifications
Resource Utilization Requires dedicated resources to mimic the original hardware setup Efficiently shares underlying resources

With an understanding of these differences between emulation and virtualization, we can now delve into exploring how enhancing performance is possible through hardware-assisted virtualization techniques.

Understanding the distinctions between emulation and virtualization lays the foundation for comprehending the potential improvements in performance that can be achieved using hardware-assisted virtualization.

Enhancing Performance with Hardware-Assisted Virtualization

Imagine a scenario where a company needs to run multiple operating systems simultaneously on their server infrastructure. Without hardware-assisted virtualization, this task would be challenging and resource-intensive. However, advancements in computer architecture have paved the way for enhanced performance through the utilization of hardware-assisted virtualization.

Hardware-assisted virtualization leverages specialized features present in modern CPUs to optimize virtual machine (VM) execution. By offloading certain tasks from software-based emulation to dedicated hardware components, VMs can achieve higher levels of efficiency and performance. One prominent example of hardware-assisted virtualization is Intel’s Virtualization Technology (VT-x) and AMD’s Secure Virtual Machine (SVM), both designed to enhance the capabilities of virtual machines.

To understand the benefits that hardware-assisted virtualization brings forth, let us delve into its advantages:

  • Improved Isolation: Hardware-assisted virtualization enhances isolation between VMs by using built-in memory management units (MMUs). This allows each VM to have its own address space, reducing the risk of one VM impacting others due to faulty or malicious behavior.
  • Efficient Resource Allocation: With hardware assistance, hypervisors gain better control over physical resources such as CPU cores and memory allocation. This enables optimal resource utilization across different VMs while ensuring fair sharing and preventing any single VM from monopolizing system resources.
  • Reduced Overhead: The use of dedicated hardware accelerators facilitates faster context switching between host and guest operating systems, thereby minimizing overhead and improving overall system responsiveness.
  • Enhanced Security: By leveraging security-focused features provided by modern processors, such as Intel’s Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) or AMD’s Secure Encrypted Virtualization (SEV), sensitive data within a VM can be protected against unauthorized access or tampering.
Feature Description Benefits
Improved Isolation Each VM has its own address space, reducing the risk of one VM impacting others due to faulty or malicious behavior. Enhanced security and isolation between virtual machines
Efficient Resource Allocation Hardware assistance enables optimal resource allocation across different VMs while preventing any single VM from monopolizing system resources. Ensures fair sharing and efficient utilization of physical resources
Reduced Overhead Dedicated hardware accelerators facilitate faster context switching between host and guest operating systems, minimizing overhead and improving system responsiveness. Better performance and improved overall system responsiveness
Enhanced Security Utilizes specialized security-focused features provided by modern processors to protect sensitive data within a VM against unauthorized access or tampering. Increased protection for critical data

In summary, hardware-assisted virtualization provides several advantages that enhance the efficiency, performance, and security aspects of running multiple operating systems on a single server infrastructure. Through improved isolation, efficient resource allocation, reduced overhead, and enhanced security measures, organizations can leverage this technology to achieve better utilization of their computing resources while ensuring robust operational integrity.

By embracing these hardware advancements in virtualization technology, businesses can unlock new possibilities in managing complex software ecosystems effectively without compromising performance or security.

Share.

Comments are closed.